Black Women
Why Are Black Women Less Physically Attractive Than Other Women?
Why black women, but not black men?
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Published on May 15, 2011 by Satoshi Kanazawa in The Scientific Fundamentalist
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There are marked race differences in physical attractiveness among women, but not among men. Why?
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Add Health measures the physical attractiveness of its respondents both objectively and subjectively.
At the end of each interview, the interviewer rates the physical attractiveness of the respondent objectively on the following five-point scale: 1 = very unattractive, 2 = unattractive, 3 = about average, 4 = attractive, 5 = very attractive.
The physical attractiveness of each Add Health respondent is measured three times by three different interviewers over seven years.
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From these three scores, I can compute the latent “physical attractiveness factor” by a statistical procedure called factor analysis.
Factor analysis has the added advantage of eliminating all random measurement errors that are inherent in any scientific measurement.
The latent physical attractiveness factor has a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1.
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Recall that women on average are more physically attractive than men. So women of all races are on average more physically attractive than the “average” Add Health respondent, except for black women.
As the following graph shows, black women are statistically no different from the “average” Add Health respondent, and far less attractive than white, Asian, and Native American women.
In contrast, races do not differ in physical attractiveness among men, as the following graph shows.
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Men of all races are more or less equally less physically attractive than the “average” Add Health respondent.
This sex difference in the race differences in physical attractiveness
– where physical attractiveness varies significantly by race among women, but not among men
– is replicated at each Add Health wave (except that the race differences among men are statistically significant, albeit substantively very small, in Wave III).
In each wave, black women are significantly less physically attractive than women of other races.
It is very interesting to note that, even though black women are objectively less physically attractive than other women, black women (and men) subjectively consider themselves to be far more physically attractive than others.
In Wave III, Add Health asks its respondents to rate their own physical attractiveness subjectively on the following four-point scale: 1 = not at all, 2 = slightly, 3 = moderately, 4 = very.
As you can see in the following graphs, both black women and black men rate themselves to be far more physically attractive than individuals of other races.
What accounts for the markedly lower average level of physical attractiveness among black women?
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Black women are on average much heavier than nonblack women.
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The mean body-mass index (BMI) at Wave III is 28.5 among black women and 26.1 among nonblack women. (Black and nonblack men do not differ in BMI: 27.0 vs. 26.9.)
However, this is not the reason black women are less physically attractive than nonblack women. Black women have lower average level of physical attractiveness net of BMI.
Nor can the race difference in intelligence (and the positive association between intelligence and physical attractiveness) account for the race difference in physical attractiveness among women.
Black women are still less physically attractive than nonblack women net of BMI and intelligence. Net of intelligence, black men are significantly more physically attractive than nonblack men.
Another study in this same direction comes from Mindset researcher Carol Dweck and colleagues Job, Walton, and Bernecker (2013).
This study demonstrated that participants who believed self-control was plentiful and unlimited had high willpower performance, both with and without glucose boosts.
Participants who believed in finite and easily depletable willpower, however, performed poorly on experimental tasks as the demands on their self-control grew.
In a nutshell, then, and as Muraven and Slessareva argue, scientific evidence suggests that both motivation and self-control resources are essential components of self-control.
Importance of Self-Discipline
Willpower helps us resist short-term urges and impulses to pursue longer-term goals. If you’re saving for a car, for instance, practicing self-control about impulse purchases will improve your chances – maybe even get you there faster.
Walter Mischel’s early marshmallow experiment was one of the first studies into delayed gratification, and it gave rise to a surge of later studies linking self-discipline with success.
In a nutshell, it appears that self-discipline – or delay gratification, at least – is not as straightforward as it seems.
There is evidence suggesting that low or high self-control in childhood can have influences on our choices and behaviors in later life, but that our beliefs regarding the environment can play a big role too.
Given that our capacity for self-control can be improved, then, how can we build more self-discipline in children?
A couple of decades later, researchers followed up with the students to find that those who could delay gratification had comparatively better academic performance and higher educational achievements than those who didn’t.
This corresponds with later findings that have shown self-control to have a more significant positive impact on academic success than cognitive intelligence, and that pupils with more self-discipline had better grades, school attendance, and test results.
Logically, it makes sense in a way – but that’s not the only important role of self-discipline. Among other things, research findings also point to the parts that self-control can play in:
How to run for longer is one of the questions that I get most from those who are training towards running a longer distance.
Perhaps they’ve started to increase their mileage during their weekend runs and they’re finding it tough or maybe they’ve got an ambitious goal of running a marathon and the long runs aren’t going well (this is a great book if you are targeting a marathon).
I think this is something that everyone struggles with at some point, so don’t worry.
There are some simple steps that any runner can take to increase their stamina so that they can run for longer:
Slow Down
The mistake that most people make when increasing the distance is not to pace themselves.
Most of us will naturally slow down the further we run (unless you’re Eliud Kipchoge), so if you want to run for longer you need to adjust your pace.
Pacing is individual for everyone, so you’ll need to experiment. But on your next long run try running the first two miles slower than you usually would.
That should benefit you later on in the run, and rather than getting slower each mile, you should be able to start to even out your pace.
Once you’re running the distance that you’re aiming for, you can then work on increasing your pace.
Take Your Time
A common mistake is to try and increase your mileage too quickly. You shouldn’t try and increase the distance that you’re covering in training by much more than 10%.
So if the longest distance that you’re able to run is currently 3 miles, don’t try and double that in a week.
Fuel Properly
If you’re running a 5k race then you probably don’t need to worry too much about fueling, the energy required to run that distance is relatively modest and you can get away with a breakfast banana before heading out of the door.
But as you increase the distance that you’re running, the amount of fuel that your body requires increases, in fact, if you’re running a marathon distance, you need to refuel on your run to avoid the dreaded wall.
This means eating properly. If you’re on a diet, then you could be struggling to run for longer because you’re simply not eating enough to fuel yourself through your longer runs.
If I’m doing a longer run on a Sunday, I’m careful to make sure I have a good carbohydrate filled meal like pasta the night before.
I’ll get up early and have some breakfast, giving myself plenty of time to digest it (this is different for different people, so just experiment).
If I’m marathon training I’ll carry the same food I intend to eat in my race, personally, that isn’t gels but energy balls made with dates, hazelnuts and raisins (all-natural and Vegan).
When you get back in from your run, don’t forget to refuel. For a simple way to get protein into my body I eat Nuts or Chickpeas after a run (again all-natural and Vegan).
If you’re looking for a great running cookbook, I’d recommend the No Meat Athlete Cookbook.
Stay Hydrated
As well as having the right food to fuel you through your run, staying hydrated is also important.
You should always have a drink before you head out the door and if it’s a hot day consider carrying some water with you. I love the 250ml Aonijie water bottle below.
Some runners I know hide water bottles along the route of their long run the night before, so they can stop off and grab a drink without having to carry the bottle with them.
As with food, it’s essential to rehydrate after your run too.
Run with Others
Every Sunday my local running group sets off for a 12-mile run. I always notice how much easier it is to cover this distance with fellow runners.
The conversation makes the miles pass quicker and your focus is on what others are saying rather than ‘how much further do I have to run’.
If you’re training for a longer race, it’s a great idea to sign up with friends so that you can train together.
This will help keep you motivated and has the added advantage of giving you a training buddy to drag you out when the weather is awful.
If your friends aren’t into running, find a local running group and make some new friends.
Pick a New Route
Another way to stay motivated and increase the distance that you’re running is to pick a new route. Is there an interesting local landmark that you can head to, a trail that you’ve never tried before?
Strength & Conditioning
In the past many thought that a good running programme was enough to build the endurance required to run longer distances, it’s now clear that strength and conditioning training is a must for runners.
We have some information about lifting weights here. If lifting weights isn’t for you it’s easy to do strength training in your home, watch the video below for some great tips on how to do this.
There are some great books out their about Strength and Conditioning for runners. I really rate this book by Richard Blagrove.
Whatever kind of Strength and Conditioning training you decide to do, this will boost your running, making you stronger and less susceptible to injury.
Dress Appropriately
“There’s no such thing as bad weather, just the wrong clothes”.
This is a saying that a training buddy likes to throw at me when I’m complaining that I’m too cold on a long winter run.
With the wealth of running clothes now available, it’s true that it’s possible to find the right equipment for any conditions;
(below is a picture of me competition in a marathon in the Arctic where the temperature was colder than a household freezer).
Take the time to invest in the right clothing for where you run. This might be a good rainproof jacket, a cap to protect you from the sun or the best winter gloves.
Whatever conditions you’re facing, make sure that you have the best kit for the job.
Don’t Give Up
Perhaps the most important aspect of learning to run for longer is not to give up.
You will undoubtedly have bad days when you haven’t fueled properly or the weather makes you turn back before you have done your miles, but if you slowly build up your mileage you will soon find yourself covering distances that you once thought impossible.
If you do find yourself considering quitting, focus on your goal. Is it to cross a finishing line and get a medal, is it to achieve a fitness goal?
Whatever you’re trying to achieve, know that success is never a straight line, but with a little perseverance, you’ve got this!
Self-discipline. Let’s be honest. For most of us, it’s a work in progress wrapped in good intentions, procrastination, and feelings of failure.
But it doesn’t have to be. Self-discipline, like everything else, is a practice. Not every day will be perfect, but each day -- with its failures and small wins -- is progress, and that’s what self-discipline is all about.
I’ve rounded up steps you can take today to build self-discipline. Coupled with a healthy understanding of what self-discipline is and a little inspiration, this post gives you the tools you need to develop a practice of self-discipline in everything you do.
“Willpower is what separates us from the animals. It’s the capacity to restrain our impulses, resist temptation – do what’s right and good for us in the long run, not what we want to do right now. It’s central, in fact, to civilization.”
“The only way to do something in depth is to work hard. The moment you start being in love with what you’re doing, and thinking it’s beautiful or rich, then you’re in danger.”
“One painful duty fulfilled makes the next plainer and easier.”
“This quality of self-denial in pursuit of a longer-term goal and, indeed, the willpower to maintain the denial, is excellent training for the boardroom.”
“I used to walk down the street like I was a superstar… I want people to walk around delusional about how great they can be – and then to fight so hard for it every day that the lie becomes the truth.”
“We don’t have to be smarter than the rest; we have to be more disciplined than the rest.”
“My will shall shape my future. Whether I fail or succeed shall be no man’s doing but my own. I am the force;
I can clear any obstacle before me or I can be lost in the maze. My choice; my responsibility; win or lose, only I hold the key to my destiny.”
“It doesn’t matter whether you are pursuing success in business, sports, the arts, or life in general: The bridge between wishing and accomplishing is discipline.”
“Passion is energy. Feel the power that comes from focusing on what excites you.”
“Your ability to discipline yourself to set clear goals, and then to work toward them every day, will do more to guarantee your success than any other single factor.”
“Define success on your own terms, achieve it by your own rules, and build a life you’re proud to live.”
“The ability to subordinate an impulse to a value is the essence of the proactive person.”
“It is our choices, that show what we truly are, far more than our abilities.”
“Willpower is the key to success. Successful people strive no matter what they feel by applying their will to overcome apathy, doubt or fear.”
“We need to accept that we won’t always make the right decisions, that we’ll screw up royally sometimes -- understanding that failure is not the opposite of success, it’s part of success.”
What is Self-Discipline?
Self-discipline is the ability to do what you should be doing. Self-discipline often means putting off your immediate comfort or wishes in favor of longterm success.
For example, if you want to become physically fit, you might endure the short-term discomfort of 5:00 a.m. gym times to attain the longterm benefits of being healthy and feeling great.
In “The Chimp Paradox,” Dr. Steve Peters explains we’re already the people we wish to be.
Our emotional mind simply stops us from behaving how we need to achieve our ideal state. Self-discipline gives us the ability to overcome our emotional mind by moving forward with physical action.